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Japan's Largest Natural Gas Development in Africa Gets a Red Light: 'IS' Finally Halts Operations of Mitsui/Total Announces 'Force Majeure'
Dr. Sayaka Funada-Classen (International Peace Research Institute, Meiji Gakuin University)
*The English version based on the article originally written in Japanese and published by Asahi Shimbun (https://webronza.asahi.com/politics/articles/2021042700008.html).
* The translation was provided by Office BALÉS and supported by MISEREOR.
Once touted as one of the “largest development project in Sub-Saharan Africa”, the large-scale development projects spearheaded by the Government of Japan, Mitsui & Co., and others through public-private partnerships under the Abe administration have almost come to a complete halt marking huge losses.
Developing one of the largest natural gas reserves in the world was the most important and significant project of all for the Japanese stakeholders. The project, in particular the construction of a natural gas liquefaction (LNG) plant, was financed with investments from Mitsui, the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGME), and the Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC), a government-affiliated financial institution. Following repeated attacks by the armed groups calling themselves ‘the Islamic State’ (IS), the "total withdrawal" of 3,000 staff members, and resulting suspension of plant construction work, Total, the primary beneficiary of the project, finally declared today (April 26, 2021) a "force majeure situation".
For the past decade, the Japanese public and private sectors have provided one of the largest aids and investment to Mozambique, located in southeastern African, facing the Indian Ocean. The focus was on the underground resources and "vast uncultivated land” in the northern part of the country. However, these large-scale development projects have been met with strong resistance from peasants, who make up the overwhelming majority of the local population, forced to cease one after another. This was due to social division and widespread dissatisfaction caused by corruption, inequality, and power-grabbing, as well as increased environmental awareness worldwide. The following are the highlights of these events.
i. Suspension of JICA's large-scale agricultural development project ProSAVANA in the three northern provinces (August 2020)[1]
ii. Sale by Mitsui & Co. of the Moatize Coal Mine/Nacala Corridor Rail and Port Infrastructure Project (JBIC loan of nearly JPY 111.3 billion[2]) for "1 yen" (January 2021)[3]
iii. The suspension of a natural gas development project (LNG plant construction) in the northern tip of Mozambique (near the border with Tanzania) led by Mitsui & Co. and for which JBIC has pledged a loan of USD 3 billion (about JPY 320 billion).[4]
The armed attack by armed groups to the natural gas development site and its surrounding areas in Cabo Delgado Province that began in October 2017 was also covered in the previous article in a series by the author, “The ‘IS’ Attack on Mozambique: No longer ‘an incident in a distant African country’ for Japan with heavy concern on impact to natural gas imports”. The series, which began on June 15, 2019, pointed out the various issues surrounding natural gas development that were already erupting at the time, and alerted the public about their connection to corruption among government officials, including the past and present presidents (e.g. the scandal related to ‘Hidden Debts’).
The armed attack by armed groups to the natural gas development site and its surrounding areas in Cabo Delgado Province that began in October 2017 was also covered in the previous article in a series by the author, “The ‘IS’ Attack on Mozambique: No longer ‘an incident in a distant African country’ for Japan with heavy concern on impact to natural gas imports”.[1] The series, which began on June 15, 2019, pointed out the various issues surrounding natural gas development that were already erupting at the time, and alerted the public about their connection to corruption among government officials, including the past and present presidents (e.g. the scandal related to ‘Hidden Debts’).
However, four days later, on June 19, Mitsui announced its final investment decision in a press release entitled "Final Investment Decision for the Mozambique LNG Project," which made no mention of the existing risks and/or the corruption that was already visible.[6]
In fact, throughout 2020, the armed groups not only seized the key sites essential for natural gas development, but also repeatedly attacked villages within 1-5 kilometers away from the LNG plant construction site (Cabo Delgado’s Palma District in Afungi Peninsula) between December 29, 2019, and January 1, 2020. These attacks resulted with them fighting with local police and security forces. In response to this, Total decided on January 2 to temporarily evacuate its personnel, and the number of personnel involved with the construction was reduced from around 10,000 to about 1,000. Just as they started to return, on March 24 of this year, the armed groups launched a massive attack in Palma District capital six kilometers away, forcing Total to evacuate all staff by air and sea.[7]
Although Total insisted to announce that there was "no change in plans" to start exporting natural gas in 2024, on April 26, the company finally declared a "force majeure" situation.[8]
Considering the evolution of the security situation in the north of the Cabo Delgado province in Mozambique, Total confirms the withdrawal of all Mozambique LNG project personnel from the Afungi site. This situation leads Total, as operator of Mozambique LNG project, to declare force majeure.
In other words, the development project for the world's largest natural gas reserves, which had been spearheaded by the Japanese public and private sectors, has hit a dead end. And because of the "force majeure" caused by the fighting, they are requesting immunity, which will likely burden investors, lending institutions, and insurance companies. There is no denying the possibility that the final buck will be passed on to the Japanese taxpayers and the public, who are the bearers of public funds.
The armed attacks in the Province of Cabo Delgado within a week in mid-April occurred in the following locations. Not only were the attacks spread across the entire province, but it also shows most heavily attacked areas centered (1) along the coast where natural gas oil fields are concentrated, (2) the LNG plant construction sites (Palma District and Afungi Peninsula), (3) the logistics hub in Mocimboa da Praia, and (4) the government military base in Mueda. Moreover, it is also clear that attacks have been launched (5) in the southern part of the province, just outside the provincial capital of Pemba (in Mecufi).
As a researcher on the current and past socio-political situation of the region, particular focus given on the questions related to war, violence, peace, and development, for more than 25 years since 1994, I have warned these consequences: That the political fragmentation and militarization caused by the problems brought forth by foreign investments, including these large-scale development projects, would eventually lead to the collapse of these projects. This is in fact what is happening now. In this new series of articles, I will focus on the issue of natural gas development projects, which are now in a state of emergency.
In this article (Volume I of Three), under the following structure, I will mainly examine the feasibility of the Mitsui and JBIC loans:
1. Escalation of attacks and "serious humanitarian crisis” - more than 700,000 people displaced
2. Involvement of Japan's public and private sectors in natural gas development projects - targets of the attack
3. Growing dissatisfaction among residents and opposition from environmental groups
4. JBIC's perception and response to local situation/opposition and risk analysis (from the minutes of the debate with Japanese NGOs)
5. Visit to Japan and JBIC by a local environmental group
6. Largest attack in three years just before JBIC loan decision
7. Growing international opposition and problems of natural gas development (land grabbing, corruption, human rights, militarization, environment)
8. The loan agreement between JBIC and Mitsui, regardless of the situation and the eventual suspension of the project
*****************
In the Cabo Delgado province at the northern tip of Mozambique, where the natural gas development sites are located, the armed attacks by the ‘Islamist’ militant groups and hostilities with government forces have continued since October 2017, resulting in 2,811 attacks, nearly 3,000 deaths and 715,000 displaced people to date.[9] More than a year has passed since the United Nations warned of a "serious humanitarian crisis," but the number of evacuees has not only continued to rise, but displaced people within the province have begun to flood into neighboring provinces, leaving the entire northern part of Mozambique in serious crisis situation.
Since late last year, these armed groups have targeted natural gas development projects and have been intensifying their attacks on LNG plant construction sites near the Tanzanian border.[10] In August 2020, they recaptured the port of Mocimboa, a police station, the administrative districts, and other ports that are essential for tactical logistics, and have succeeded to hold them despite repeated counterattacks by government forces. The IS has even declared Mocimboa to be the capital of the Islamic State Central African Province (ISCAP).[11] The transportation network in the area has also been disrupted by the ambush attack, forcing the government and businesses to resort to transport by air or sea.[12]
These armed groups have also launched attacks on islands around gas field drilling sites in the Indian Ocean,[13] showing how inadequate the perception of "sporadic attacks" and "terrorism" claimed by Japan and the local government is.
The Japanese public and private sectors (Mitsui and JOGME) have been involved in this development project as the second largest concession holder (20%) of the “Rovuma Offshore Area 1 concession”, together with the French oil giant Total (26.5%). In particular, Mitsui & Co. has been investing its own funds[14] and applying for loans from the Japanese public institution JBIC since 2015 for the construction of an onshore LNG plant and submarine natural gas production facility.
JGC Corporation, which lost many victims in the Algerian hostage crisis,[15] along with Chiyoda Corporation, whose 47% of revenues stem from the construction of LNG plants, were awarded the contract for the basic design of the LNG plant in 2019.[16] In addition, Tokyo Gas and Tohoku Gas have entered a contract for the purchase of natural gas.[17]
In the province of Cabo Delgado, where the natural gas field is located, armed attacks such as the one described above began in October 2017. This resulted not only in hostilities with government forces, but also in social discontent among fishermen and farmers who lived near the construction site of LNG facility in Afungi situated across the ocean from the natural gas field, and those who were forced to vacate and relocate.
This can be seen in the 2018 video "Broken Lives, Stolen Future" by a local environmental NGO (Justiça Ambiental: JA!). In addition, as pointed out in the prior series of articles, the overwhelming majority of these residents are Muslim, with a network that historically includes Tanzania, Kenya, and in some cases, Somalia. This was discussed in detail in "The Origins of War in Mozambique: A History of Unity and Division " (The African Minds, 2013).[19]
In addition to the above issues, JA! has been calling for a halt to the project, pointing out that the development of the natural gas field will not only lead to the destruction of the environment of the Quirimbas Archipelago, a cultural and natural heritage site recognized by UNESCO,[20] but will also increase Mozambique's emissions of carbon that would induce climate change by more than 10%, thus promoting global warming contrary to international agreements (see Volume II of the prior series).[21]
In response, Japanese civil society groups including NGOs have also taken up the issue as an agenda item at the regular consultative meetings with the Ministry of Finance (MoF), calling on the Japanese government and JBIC to abandon the loan.
A group of three Japanese NGOs asked about the "loan availability" and "guidelines for risk areas, risk analysis methods and current status" at the first consultation with the MoF and JBIC on the issue of natural gas development (Dec. 24, 2019). Naoki Takahashi (Head of Unit 2, Mineral Resources Department, JBIC) responded as follows:[22]
As regards to the natural gas project in which Mitsui Co., and JOGMEG are participating, at this time, we have not made any financing decisions for the project in Mozambique.
As regards to how we analyze the risks that are developing, in general terms, when there is a deterioration in public safety in a project location, JBIC first asks the project proponent about the local situation and specific measures to be taken to implement the project. In addition, if necessary, we seek the opinions of outside experts to provide information, risk analysis, and other such requests. We gather the necessary information and consider the loan while checking the appropriateness of security measures and measures involving labor conditions.
The following exchange between Ms. Naoko Watanabe of the Japan International Volunteer Center (JVC) and Mr. Takahashi can be confirmed in the minutes as their response.
From this conversation, we can see that at this stage, six months before the loan decision was made, JBIC indicated that it had not conducted its own risk analysis or have recognized the situation. After this, JBIC made the excuse that "the person who responded at the time was not the person in charge, and that we had passed on incorrect information." However, the agenda and questions were submitted in advance, and it would be unnatural if they did not know whether risk analysis was being conducted at a public consultation meeting where verbatim minutes are kept.[23]
From the JBIC's subsequent response and explanations, it is clear that they underestimated the risk, as they described it as "sporadic clashes". This will be discussed in Volume II.
It should be noted that, at least at this point, JBIC had not yet decided on the loan, and had stated that it would confirm the "risk analysis" and "appropriateness of security measures" for the loan.
However, not only did the situation continue to deteriorate, but in January 2020, a representative of JA! (Ms. Dipti Bhatnagar) came to Japan and visited JBIC together with four Japanese organizations to point out the deteriorating situation and problems with the project in the region, making repeated requests not to provide loans.[24]
On the JBIC side, Mr. Tatsumi, Mr. Hosoi, Mr. Ohno, Mr. Imai, and Mr. Awaya (full names unknown) responded to this request, and the NGO's minutes reveal that the following exchange took place between Mr. Tatsumi and Ms. Dipti on this matter.[25]
In response to Mr. Tatsumi's answer, Mr. Watanabe, the member of JVC, asked about the method of loan decision-making and what conditions must be met before a loan decision can be made. The same records reveal that Mr. Tatsumi responded as follows
With regards to the security issue, we have discussed with the local operators how to manage the risk and have confirmed the results with an external security consultant before deciding.
It is difficult to state exactly to what degree security matters affect our decision, but we do recognize that it is one of the top priorities that must be considered.
But in fact, on July 16, 2020, just as the attacks were escalating and the situation was deteriorating, JBIC announced its decision to provide the loan.[26] Two weeks before this on July 2, the Nikkei Shimbun reported the following as a scoop: "Public and private sectors to finance JPY 1.5 trillion LNG development in Africa, diversifying procurement sources.”[27]
The government and private sector will co-finance JPY 1.5 trillion for the development of liquefied natural gas (LNG) in Mozambique, Africa. The Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) and three megabanks will provide loans, and Nippon Export and Investment Insurance (NEXI) will cover the risk of loan losses. The group is investing money in this project as they see it as a good opportunity to promote long-term stable production and diversification of procurement sources. JBIC will lend USD 3 billion (about JPY 320 billion) of the USD 14.4 billion (about JPY 1.5 trillion) ...
However, the article not only fails to report the seriousness of the existing situation at the development site, but also emphasizes the relevance and safety of this development, comparing it to the Strait of Hormuz:
Japan is the world's largest importer of LNG. Most imports come from Australia, Qatar, and other countries, but the Strait of Hormuz, the shipping route from Qatar, has become a geopolitical risk, as a Japanese tanker was attacked in 2019. From Mozambique, it can be transported to Japan without passing through the Strait of Hormuz.
As a major news organization, they should be able to see with a little research that the reality was quite different.
The following is a graph showing the evolution of the number of cases of political violence in the province, as reported in the weekly report “Cabo Ligado” on the situation in Cabo Delgado published by the International Crisis Group and two independent Mozambican newspapers, Zitamar News and Mediafax 31 August-6 September, 2020).[28]
This shows a dramatic increase in the number of attacks by July, the month in which JBIC announced its investment decision. In fact, the four months immediately preceding and following the investment decision (April-July 2020) coincide with the most intense period of armed attacks in the past three years, and the militants have not only expanded the geographic scope of their attacks but have also succeeded in seizing each of the district capitals.
On June 27, just prior to June 30, 2020, when the Japanese press reported the JBIC loan decision, there was a simultaneous attack on the district capital of Mocimboa, a logistics hub, and the police and executive branch were destroyed, looted, and occupied. However, the Mozambican government forces were helpless, and the occupation continued for more than ten days. I want to make it clear that these were investment decisions and news reports made during such time.
The following is the distribution of the locations of the attacks that occurred during the week of June 22-28. We can also confirm that already at this stage, the attack on Palma District and Afungi, where the LNG plant is located, has begun.
Local and global calls to halt this natural gas development preexisted before these attacks. A month earlier on June 4, a statement of opposition was released by Mozambican NGOs (JA! Friends of the Earth Mozambique, among others), signed by 20 Mozambican environmental organizations, 14 international organizations, 19 regional organizations, 151 national organizations, and 206 individuals.[29] This international statement begins with the following:
Cabo Delgado is being ravaged. And it’s clear who is responsible. The gas industry is causing devastation in this northernmost province of Mozambique, with communities starving and landless, even before any gas has been extracted.
This international statement pointed out the actual five damages and problems caused by the natural gas development in Cabo Delgado as the “realities of the destruction" and called on the transnational corporations involved in the development, buyers of natural gas, and investors, to immediately halt all activities related to the development.
(1) Land grabbing and loss of livelihoods: Natural gas development has deprived people of access to farmland and the sea, the source of their livelihoods. In the construction site of liquefaction plant, 550 fishing and farming families were deprived of their land and homes.
(2) Widening disparity between the rich and the poor: International investment in resource industries is not enriching local communities, but rather is widening the disparity between the rich and the poor (Mozambique ranks 180th out of 189 countries in the Human Development Index: HDI).
(3) Deterioration of governance: Community leaders who criticized natural gas development and journalists who were reporting from the area remain missing. There are also several people who were detained without charges.[30] The natural gas industry is perpetuating a culture of impunity, corruption, and human rights abuses.
(4) Outbreak of armed conflicts and repression: In natural gas development sites, attacks by Islamic armed groups have become a regular occurrence, resulting in more than hundred thousand displaced persons. These armed groups are joined by local youths who have been deprived of their livelihood and have watched the wealthy state elites get even richer. As a result, natural gas development facilities have also been the target of attacks. In response, the Mozambican government has militarized the region with the premise to safeguard the natural gas industry, resulting in continued attacks and repression of the population by military and police personnel.
(5) Environmental degradation and climate change: The Quirimbas Archipelago, which is adjacent to a natural gas development site, is threatened by gas development despite its designation as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. And while development companies are "greenwashing" the idea that natural gas is ‘environmentally friendly’, the reality is that natural gas development is a step backwards in decarbonization.[31] Development of three natural gas sites in Northern Mozambique could emit seven times more greenhouse gases than France's annual emissions.
(6) Spread of the COVID-19 virus: Natural gas developers (especially Total and LNG construction workers) brought COVID-19 to the area and spread it among the workers due to lack of countermeasures.
Based on the above, the statement said Mozambique is on the brink of becoming “a country that falls into the ‘resource curse’” and demanded that “all transnational companies, all purchasers, and all international investors involved in gas extraction in Mozambique cease all activities right now.” Nonetheless, JBIC’s decision to provide the loan was made a month after this, with no improvement seen in the security situation.
In response, eleven Japanese civil society organizations jointly issued an opposition statement dated on July 22, entitled, "We call on the Japanese government to stop the massive public financing of natural gas development which is harmful and causing human suffering." The statement was delivered to JBIC and the Ministry of Finance. At the end of the statement, a formal request was made to "Japan's public and private sectors as major proponents of natural gas development," and to "the Japanese government and Japanese corporations” with the following perspectives:
In other words, it can be said that the natural gas development led by the Japanese public and private sectors has created a battle zone for international conflicts, increasing the damage to the residents. Regardless, the decision by JBIC, a public institution, was made at a time when the situation was seriously deteriorating.
In response to the above, as Japan’s civil society organizations and non-governmental organizations, we once again call for an immediate halt to the involvement of the Japanese public and private sectors in natural gas development, which is already harming the lives and livelihoods of the local people and setting back efforts to address climate change.
We also adamantly oppose loans and insurance underwriting using public funds being promoted at a time when armed conflict has broken out and development sites are prime targets. Those funds are the precious financial resources of the Japanese people and residents.
These repeated warnings and opposition requests were largely ignored, and the loan decision was finally made on February 16, 2021. As indicated at the beginning of this report, the loan agreement was announced while the construction of the LNG plant was suspended due to the intensified attacks at the end of the year.[33] The total amount of loans amounted to USD 894 million (about JPY 96.6 billion).
A month later March 24, the Palma District capital located 6 kilometers from the plant construction site which serves as a base for logistics and personnel essential to the continuation of the project, was attacked by as many as 100 militants, who destroyed, occupied, and looted banks, hotels, stores, and police stations. The armed forces occupied the Palma District capital for more than a week, until April 4. The incompetence of the Mozambican government forces was now apparent. Today's suspension of operations and declaration of "force majeure" by Total came amidst casualties and evacuation of over 10,000 people.
(To be continued...)
[1] https://webronza.asahi.com/politics/articles/2020080500001.html?page=1
[2] https://www.jbic.go.jp/ja/information/press/press-2017/1128-58878.html
[3] https://www.mitsui.com/jp/ja/release/2021/1240454_12148.html
[4] https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXZQOGR07D3F0X00C21A4000000/
[5] https://webronza.asahi.com/politics/articles/2019061300001.html?iref=wrp_rnavi_new
[6] https://www.mitsui.com/jp/ja/release/2019/1228888_11203.html
[7] https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/03/mozambique-french-energy-giant-total-withdraws-after-militant-attacks
[8] https://clubofmozambique.com/news/just-in-total-declares-force-majeure-on-mozambique-lng-project-press-release-190411/
[9] https://www.caboligado.com/reports/cabo-ligado-weekly-12-18-april-2021
[10] https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/natural-gas/010521-frances-total-removes-staff-at-mozambique-lng-as-insurgency-closes-in
[11] https://apnews.com/article/1d76838397ef4d18b6a63bb22f8cd254
[12] https://apnews.com/article/international-news-islamic-state-group-mozambique-91fd3cfdfe7f279d10ccc63deabf5193
[13] https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/09/20/jihadists-launch-assault-mozambiques-luxury-tourist-island/
[14] https://www.mitsui.com/jp/ja/release/2015/1208410_6498.html
[15] https://www.afpbb.com/articles/-/2922289
[16] https://www.jgc.com/en/news/2019/20191009_01.html
[17] https://www.jetro.go.jp/biznews/2019/02/0adb8b4869c00b26.html
[18] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LCE6tYbEAss
[19] https://www.africanminds.co.za/the-origins-of-war-in-mozambique-a-history-of-unity-and-division/
[20] http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5380/
[21] https://webronza.asahi.com/politics/articles/2019101700001.html?page=2
[23] http://mozambiquekaihatsu.blog.fc2.com/blog-entry-455.html
[24] https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCoZCgmP4w-1Ttbw65YqRtGQ
[25] http://mozambiquekaihatsu.blog.fc2.com/blog-entry-455.html
[26] https://www.jbic.go.jp/en/information/press/press-2020/0716-013514.html
[27] https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO61072270S0A700C2EE8000/?n_cid=NMAIL007_20200702_Y
[28] https://www.caboligado.com/reports/cabo-ligado-weekly-31-august-6-september-2020
[29] https://www.foei.org/take-action/gas-human-rights-covid-mozambique
[30] https://rsf.org/en/news/mozambique-case-missing-mozambican-journalist-referred-un
[31]https://www.foei.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Gas-in-Mozambique_Friends-of-the-Earth_Executive-Summary_English.pdf
[32] https://www.ngo-jvc.net/jp/projects/advocacy-statement/2020/07/20200729-mozambiquestatement.html
[33] https://www.jbic.go.jp/ja/information/press/press-2020/0216-014303.html
日本勢にとって、最も重要かつ大きな事業であった、世界最大規模の埋蔵天然ガスの開発事業。三井物産とJOGME(独立行政法人 石油天然ガス・金属鉱物資源機構)、政府系金融機関のJBIC(日本国際協力銀行)が投融資を行ってきた当該事業、特に天然ガス液化(LNG)プラント建設は、「イスラム国」を名乗る武装集団による度重なる襲撃、3000人に及ぶスタッフの「全面撤退」とプラント建設停止を受けて、本日ついに筆頭権益者のトタル(Total)社によって、「フォース・マジョール(不可抗力事態)」が発表された(2021年4月26日)。
過去10年、日本の官民は、アフリカ南東部、インド洋に面するモザンビーク北部の地下資源と「広大な未耕作地」に着目し、最大規模の援助と投資を行ってきた。しかし、これらの大規模開発は地域住民の圧倒的多数を占める小農らに強い反発を受けるとともに、汚職や格差、強権化が引き起した社会的分断と不満の広がり、世界的な環境意識の高まりにより、次々に事業停止を余儀なくされてきた。以下がその一覧である。
● JICAによる北部3州一帯での大規模農業開発事業プロサバンナの中断(2020年8月)
● 三井物産によるモアティーズ炭鉱/ナカラ回廊鉄道・港湾インフラ事業(1,113億円近くのJBIC融資 )の「1円」での売却(2021年1月)
● 三井物産が主軸となってモザンビーク北端(タンザニアとの国境付近)で進め、JBICが30億ドル(約3200億円)の融資を約束した天然ガス開発事業(LNGプラント建設)の停止
この【上】では、以下の構成で、主に三井物産とJBIC融資の妥当性について検討しています。
1. 攻撃の激烈化と「深刻な人道危機」:70万人を超える避難民
2. 攻撃対象地・天然ガス開発事業への日本の官民による関与
3. 地元住民の反発・不満の広がりと環境団体などの反対
4. 反対の声やリスク分析に関するJBICの認識と対応(議事録から)
5. 地元環境団体の来日とJBIC訪問における融資断念の要請
6. JBIC融資決定直前の時期における3年で最大規模の攻撃
7. 高まる国際的反対の声と天然ガス開発の問題(土地収奪、汚職、人権、環境)
8. それでも実施されたJBICと三井物産間の貸付け契約(1千億円弱)と事業中断
The term 'hate crime' can be used to describe a range of criminal behaviour where the perpetrator is motivated by hostility or demonstrates hostility towards the victim's disability, race, religion, sexual orientation or transgender identity.These aspects of a person's identity are known as 'protected characteristics'. A hate crime can include verbal abuse, intimidation, threats, harassment, assault and bullying, as well as damage to property. The perpetrator can also be a friend, carer or acquaintance who exploits their relationship with the victim for financial gain or some other criminal purpose.
(日本語仮訳)
「ヘイトクライム(ヘイト犯罪)」という用語は、加害者が、被害者の障害、人種、宗教、性的指向、トランスジェンダーのアイデンティティーに対して敵意を動機とする/敵意を示したりするさまざまな犯罪行為を説明するために使用される。ある人のアイデンティティのこれらの側面は「保護された特性」として知られている。ヘイトクライムには、言葉による虐待(abuse)、弾圧、脅迫、嫌がらせ(ハラスメント)、攻撃、いじめ、そして器物損壊などが含まれる。また、加害者は、友人、介護者、そして金銭的利益やその他の犯罪目的のために被害者との関係を利用する知人の場合もある。
<=「〜アイデンティティーに対して敵意を動機とする」という点に注目下さい。
(オ)EUにおける「hate speech/ヘイトスピーチ」とその規制の法制度化
さて、今回は伊藤さんが話した内容が「ヘイト」だとの指摘なので、後ろに付ける言葉として何かを想定しないといけません(以上の英語の定義参照)。「スピーチ」以外は厳しそうです。なので、次に「ヘイトスピーチ」について次に見ましょう。
ただし、「ヘイトスピーチ」は表現の自由との兼ね合いから、法制度化される場合は、かなり詳しく対象が狭められています。それは、各国で議論においても、内容においても相違が大きいのですが、最もこれが進んでいるとされるヨーロッパ連合(EU)を事例にまずはみてみましょう。ただし、前にも書きましたが、いずれの言葉も表現も概念も法制度も、使われながら鍛えられ、変化しています。
ここで二つのことが分かります。
(1)「ヘイトスピーチ」の法制度化において最も先駆的役割を果たしてきたEUにおいて、この概念が、社会に蔓延る「差別」をくい止めるために生まれたものであった点。
(2)ただし、それを法制度上で取り締まるには、「不快感」では不十分で、「憎悪や暴力を煽動を可能とするものでなければならない」こと。
<=つまり、差別に根ざした+憎悪・暴力煽動=ヘイトスピーチとされています。
その後、EU諸国に留まらず、国連加盟国内での「ヘイトスピーチ」に関する法制度化が促されていきます。日本もこのような国際社会内での変化を受けて、「ヘイトスピーチ解消法」が制定されます。
(カ)日本での「ヘイトスピーチ解消法」成立から4年
では、ここでの「ヘイトスピーチ」の対象と範囲はどのように規定されているでしょうか?
法務省のサイトには、この法律が、半数近くの人に知られていないことを驚きと嘆きとともに示しています。その上で、「ヘイトスピーチ」の具体的な事例として以下をあげています。
http://www.moj.go.jp/JINKEN/jinken04_00108.html
特定の国の出身者であること又はその子孫であることのみを理由に, 日本社会から追い出そうとしたり危害を加えようとしたりするなどの 一方的な内容の言動が,一般に「ヘイトスピーチ」と呼ばれています。
例えば,
(1)特定の民族や国籍の人々を,合理的な理由なく,一律に排除・排斥することをあおり立てるもの
(「○○人は出て行け」,「祖国へ帰れ」など)
(2)特定の民族や国籍に属する人々に対して危害を加えるとするもの
(「○○人は殺せ」「○○人は海に投げ込め」など)
(3)特定の国や地域の出身である人を,著しく見下すような内容のもの
(特定の国の出身者を,差別的な意味合いで昆虫や動物に例えるものなど)
<=この「ヘイトスピーチ解消法」の正式名称は、「本邦外出身者に対する不当な差別的言動の解消に向けた取組の推進に関する法律(平成28年法律第68号)」です。ここから分かるように、日本の法律における「ヘイトスピーチ」は、現段階では、「特定の国の出身者、その子孫」=「日本外の出身者」への「差別的言動」のみを対象としています。
具体的に法律の中身を見ましょう。
https://elaws.e-gov.go.jp/search/elawsSearch/elaws_search/lsg0500/detail?lawId=428AC1000000068
<=以上の通り、人種・宗教・障害・性的指向に基づく差別を含むヨーロッパの「ヘイトスピーチ」関連法に比べ、「日本外出身者」への加害のみを対象とする日本の法律範囲の狭さが分かるかと思います。また、加害行為もかなり限定されています。
(a) 本邦の域外にある国/地域の出身であることを理由として、
(b) 「その生命、身体、自由、名誉若しくは財産に危害を加える旨の告知」または「著しい侮辱」
(c) 地域社会からの排除を煽動する不当な差別的言動
という3段階要件になっていることが分かります。なので、世界的にみてもこの法律の適応範囲は極めて狭く、逆にいうとかなり違法要件がかなり明快な法律となっています。
(キ)日本での「ヘイトスピーチ解消法」施行の背景
このヘイトスピーチ法が制定された背景に、国連における度重なる日本政府への勧告がありました。これは、法務省のサイトでも以下のリンクとともに紹介されているので、是非各自でご確認下さい(日本語です)。
平成26年7月の国連自由権規約委員会による日本政府報告審査における最終見解【PDF】
※及び同年8月の国連人種差別撤廃委員会による同審査における最終見解【PDF】※
ここには外国出身者の差別だけでなく、その他の人種差別の問題が繰り返し指摘されてきたことも書かれています。が、与野党が合意して施行できたのが、外国出身者に関する差別だけだったということになります。
なお、日本は、国連の加盟国として、国際社会の一員として、国連加盟国の相互審査を受ける立場にあるとともに、相互審査をする立場でもあります。また、人権委員会には長らく参加してきています。その上で、これらの勧告を重く受け止め、与野党が「ヘイトスピーチ法」を制定したことは、大変賞賛されることだと思います。
国連加盟国は、それが拘束力あるなしにかかわらず(国連宣言であれ)、国際法となった規範やルールを尊重する義務があります。(それができない場合は、加盟国をやめなければなりません。)日本のヘイトスピーチ法は国際基準にあわせると不十分な点も多々ありますが、日本が尊重する必要のある(場合によって拘束力のある)国際法・規範にあわせ、相互審査に基づき、国内法との連結を進めたという点で、画期的な第一歩ではありました。
また、地方自治体における施策も第4条に含まれており、日本政府だけでなく地方自治体もこの法制度化に義務を国際的に負っていますが、これが遅々として進まない点も問題としてあげられます。(*なお、国際法の国内法制度化における地方自治体への義務付加は、この法律に限らず、一般的な法整備上の条項です)
(ク)ツイッター社の「ヘイト行為ポリシー」のアップデート(2020)
さて、今回のやりとりの舞台になったのが、ツイッター上でしたので、次にツイッター社のポリシーを見てみましょう。詳しくは、以下のサイトにいってそれぞれの箇所をクリック下さい。
ただこのポリシー改定と利用者のフィードバックを受けて重視した点として、以下が示されていることは大変重要です。
以上から、この改定にあたっては、利用者にとって「要件の明確化」「いつ、どのように文脈を考慮」し、「対象を絞り込んで」規制するのか等の「ルールの明確化」が重視された事が分かります。
<=つまり、「文脈」と「対象」が重要になっている点に注目下さい。
(ケ)ツイッター社の「ヘイト行為ポリシー」の詳細
人種、民族、出身地、社会的地位、性的指向、性別、性同一性、信仰している宗教、年齢、障碍、深刻な疾患を理由とした他者への暴力行為、直接的な攻撃行為、脅迫行為を助長する投稿を禁じます。また、このような属性を理由とした他者への攻撃を扇動することを主な目的として、アカウントを利用することも禁じます。(後略)
(前略)ある特定のグループがオンライン上で特に攻撃的な行為の標的とされています。それには、女性、有色人種、レズビアン、ゲイ、バイセクシャル、トランスジェンダー、クィア、インターセックス、アセクシャルという、社会の非主流派であり歴史的に少数派のコミュニティが含まれます。複数の少数グループに所属する人々にとって、攻撃的な行為は日常的で、耐え難いものであり、標的となる人は大きな影響を受けます。
Twitterは、嫌悪、偏見、不寛容に基づく攻撃的な行為のうち、とりわけ歴史的に非主流派の人々を沈黙させようとする攻撃に対する取り組みを進めています。このため、Twitterは、一部の国や地域で規定されている保護対象のカテゴリーに属する個人への攻撃的な行為を禁じています。(後略)
個人または特定の集団が深刻な損害を被ることを願う、希望する、または要求する
Twitterは、一部の国や地域で規定されている保護対象のカテゴリーの人々やそこに属する個人に対して、死亡、深刻かつ持続的な身体的危害、重篤な疾患を願う、希望する、促進する、またはそのような願望を表す内容を禁止しています。(後略)
法的または社会的に守られるべき特定のカテゴリーに属する人々に関する脅迫
Twitterでは、法的または社会的に守られるべき特定のカテゴリーに属する人々について、恐怖心を扇動したり、不利益となる偏見を拡散したりすることを意図したコンテンツを、個人やグループを対象に配信することを禁止しています。(後略)
中傷、悪口、人種や性差別的発言など、他者の尊厳を低下させる内容を繰り返す行為や、それらによって相手の品位を損なうような投稿
Twitterは、個人を、繰り返し中傷、差別し、一部の国や地域で規定されている保護対象のカテゴリーの人々を非人間的に扱い、貶め、彼らに対する否定的または有害な偏見を助長する目的を持ったコンテンツの標的にすることを禁止しています。 (後略)
<=以上から、ツイッター社が、次の三点を「ヘイト行為」の認定に重視していることが分かります。
②「ヘイト行為」から守られるべき特定グループ:社会的な非主流派、少数コミュニティなどの「少数グループ」、一部の国・地域の保護対象カテゴリーに属する人びと、法的・社会的に守られるべき特定カテゴリーの人びと
③「ヘイト行為」の中身:「他者への暴力行為、直接攻撃、脅迫などの助長」、「属性を理由とした他者への攻撃煽動を主な目的とするアカウントの利用」
そして、ツイッターの利用者は、これを理解した上で、ツイッター上にアカウントを設け、使っていることになります。
「その生命、身体、自由、名誉若しくは財産に危害を加える旨の告知」または「著しい侮辱」
「 地域社会からの排除を煽動する不当な差別的言動」
(ク)ツイッター社の利用ポリシーのアップデートの狙い:文脈への注目、対象の明確化
(ケ)以上の結果としてのツイッター社のポリシー詳細(守られるべき人びと):
①人種、民族、出身地、社会的地位、性的指向、性別、性同一性、宗教、年齢、障碍、疾病、特定グループ:「社会的な非主流派、少数派グループ」、「保護対象カテゴリー」「法的・社会的に守られるべき特定カテゴリー」③「ヘイト行為」の中身:「他者への暴力・攻撃(略)などの助長」、「属性を理由とした他者への攻撃煽動を目的」
【司会】
高柳 彰夫(フェリス女学院大学)
【報告】
舩田クラーセン さやか(明治学院大学)
「国際関係と日本の対アフリカ投資・開発援助――モザンビークの事例」
山本 レイモンド(オーフス大学)
「SDGと日本の開発協力戦略」
【討論】
岡部 恭宜(東北大学)
小川 裕子(東海大学)
********
以下、報告にあたってのfull paperの構成
(パワポをコピペしたらすごく読みづらく・・・すみません)
「国際関係と日本の対アフリカ投資・開発援助――モザンビークの事例」
舩田クラーセンさやか(明治学院大学国際平和研究所)
はじめに 2
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ファン申請 |
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